Try it Live
Run Hardfork examples in the interactive playground
The Merge
Active Since: Merge (September 15, 2022) Aliases: “paris” (consensus layer name)Consensus Change
Before Merge (Proof of Work):- Miners compete to solve computational puzzles
- Block rewards: 2 ETH + transaction fees
- DIFFICULTY opcode returns mining difficulty
- Validators stake 32 ETH to propose blocks
- Block rewards: Transaction tips only (base fee burned)
- DIFFICULTY opcode returns beacon chain randomness (PREVRANDAO)
Changes Introduced
PREVRANDAO Opcode
Opcode:0x44 (replaces DIFFICULTY)
Before Merge:
- Returns current block’s mining difficulty
- Used for difficulty-based calculations
- Returns beacon chain randomness (PREVRANDAO)
- Mix hash from beacon chain for randomness
- Breaking change: Contracts using DIFFICULTY for mining calculations will break
Block Production
Before Merge:- Miners propose blocks via PoW
- Block time: ~13 seconds (variable)
- Uncle blocks possible
- Validators propose blocks via PoS
- Block time: 12 seconds (fixed)
- No uncle blocks
Economics
Before Merge:- Block reward: 2 ETH per block
- Transaction fees to miners
- Issuance: ~4.3% annual
- Block reward: 0 ETH (only tips)
- Base fee burned (EIP-1559)
- Issuance: ~0.5% annual (90% reduction)
Usage Patterns
Consensus Detection
Determine consensus mechanism:Mining Configuration
Validate mining configuration:Opcode Handling
Handle DIFFICULTY/PREVRANDAO opcode:Block Validation
Validate block structure:Network Configuration
Check consensus mechanism:EIP References
Primary:- EIP-3675 - Upgrade consensus to Proof of Stake
- EIP-4399 - Supplant DIFFICULTY opcode with PREVRANDAO
Impact
For Validators:- Must stake 32 ETH to participate
- Earn tips + MEV (no base fee)
- Can be slashed for misbehavior
- DIFFICULTY opcode behavior changed
- Contracts using DIFFICULTY for mining logic will break
- Block time now consistent (12s)
- No more uncle blocks
- 90% reduction in ETH issuance
- Consistent 12-second block times
- Finality from Casper FFG (2 epochs = ~13 minutes)
- 99.95% energy reduction
- Deflationary when base fee > issuance
- More predictable issuance schedule
- Staking yield replaces mining rewards
Breaking Changes
DIFFICULTY Opcode
Contracts usingblock.difficulty must update:
Mining
All mining-related functionality removed:- No block rewards for miners
- No mining difficulty adjustments
- No uncle blocks
- Mining software incompatible with PoS
See Also
- hasEIP1559 - Check EIP-1559 base fee availability (London)
- hasEIP4844 - Check blob transactions availability (Cancun)
- isAtLeast - General version comparison

