AES-GCM Encryption

Source: aes_gcm.zigTests: aes_gcm.test.ts

Try it Live

Run AES-GCM examples in the interactive playground

Overview

AES-GCM is an authenticated encryption algorithm combining AES (Advanced Encryption Standard) in Galois/Counter Mode, providing both confidentiality and authenticity with a single key. Ethereum context: Not on Ethereum - Used for encrypted wallet storage (e.g., UTC/JSON keystore format) and secure messaging. Not part of Ethereum protocol. Key features:

Authenticated encryption: Confidentiality + integrity in one operation
Performance: Hardware-accelerated on modern CPUs
Parallelizable: Can encrypt/decrypt blocks in parallel
Additional data: Authenticate without encrypting (AAD)
Standards-compliant: NIST approved, widely used
Key sizes: 128, 192, or 256 bits
Implementations: Native Zig (16KB), NO WASM (not in browser crypto standard libs)

Quick Start

import * as AesGcm from '@tevm/voltaire/AesGcm';

// 1. Generate key (256-bit recommended)
const key = await AesGcm.generateKey(256);

// 2. Generate nonce (12 bytes)
const nonce = AesGcm.generateNonce();

// 3. Encrypt data
const plaintext = new TextEncoder().encode('Secret message');
const ciphertext = await AesGcm.encrypt(plaintext, key, nonce);

// 4. Decrypt data
const decrypted = await AesGcm.decrypt(ciphertext, key, nonce);
const message = new TextDecoder().decode(decrypted);
console.log(message); // "Secret message"

// 5. With additional authenticated data (AAD)
const aad = new TextEncoder().encode('metadata');
const ciphertextWithAAD = await AesGcm.encrypt(plaintext, key, nonce, aad);
const decryptedWithAAD = await AesGcm.decrypt(ciphertextWithAAD, key, nonce, aad);

API Reference

Key Management

`generateKey(bits: 128 | 256): Promise<CryptoKey>`

Generates a cryptographically secure AES key. Parameters:

bits - Key size (128 or 256 bits)
- 128-bit: Faster, still very secure
- 256-bit: Maximum security, recommended for sensitive data

// AES-256 (recommended)
const key256 = await AesGcm.generateKey(256);

// AES-128 (faster)
const key128 = await AesGcm.generateKey(128);

`deriveKey(password: string | Uint8Array, salt: Uint8Array, iterations: number, bits: 128 | 256): Promise<CryptoKey>`

Derives key from password using PBKDF2-HMAC-SHA256. Parameters:

password - User password (string or bytes)
salt - Salt for key derivation (≥16 bytes recommended)
iterations - PBKDF2 iterations (≥100,000 recommended)
bits - Key size (128 or 256)

// Generate salt (store with encrypted data)
import * as Hex from '@tevm/voltaire/Hex';
const salt = Hex('0x1a2b3c4d5e6f7a8b9c0d1e2f3a4b5c6d');

// Derive key from password
const key = await AesGcm.deriveKey(
  'user-password',
  salt,
  100000,    // Iterations (adjust for security/performance)
  256        // 256-bit key
);

// Use derived key for encryption
const nonce = AesGcm.generateNonce();
const ciphertext = await AesGcm.encrypt(plaintext, key, nonce);

`importKey(keyData: Uint8Array): Promise<CryptoKey>`

Imports raw key bytes as CryptoKey.

import * as Hex from '@tevm/voltaire/Hex';

// Import 32-byte key (256-bit)
const rawKey = Hex('0xf8e9a72d4c3b1a6e7d5f2c8b9e1a4d7f3c6b9e2a5d8f1c4b7e0a3d6f9c2b5e8a');

const key = await AesGcm.importKey(rawKey);

`exportKey(key: CryptoKey): Promise<Uint8Array>`

Exports CryptoKey to raw bytes.

const key = await AesGcm.generateKey(256);
const rawBytes = await AesGcm.exportKey(key);

console.log(rawBytes); // Uint8Array(32)
// Store securely (encrypted, not plaintext!)

Encryption/Decryption

`encrypt(plaintext: Uint8Array, key: CryptoKey, nonce: Uint8Array, additionalData?: Uint8Array): Promise<Uint8Array>`

Encrypts data with AES-GCM, returns ciphertext with authentication tag appended. Parameters:

plaintext - Data to encrypt
key - AES key (from generateKey or deriveKey)
nonce - 12-byte nonce/IV (must be unique per encryption)
additionalData - Optional AAD (authenticated but not encrypted)

const plaintext = new TextEncoder().encode('Secret data');
const key = await AesGcm.generateKey(256);
const nonce = AesGcm.generateNonce();

// Basic encryption
const ciphertext = await AesGcm.encrypt(plaintext, key, nonce);

// With additional authenticated data (AAD)
const metadata = new TextEncoder().encode('version:1.0');
const ciphertextWithAAD = await AesGcm.encrypt(plaintext, key, nonce, metadata);

Output format:

[encrypted_data][16-byte_authentication_tag]

`decrypt(ciphertext: Uint8Array, key: CryptoKey, nonce: Uint8Array, additionalData?: Uint8Array): Promise<Uint8Array>`

Decrypts AES-GCM ciphertext, verifies authentication tag. Parameters:

ciphertext - Encrypted data with tag
key - Same key used for encryption
nonce - Same nonce used for encryption
additionalData - Same AAD used for encryption (if any)

try {
  const decrypted = await AesGcm.decrypt(ciphertext, key, nonce);
  const message = new TextDecoder().decode(decrypted);
  console.log(message);
} catch (error) {
  console.error('Decryption failed:', error);
  // Could be: wrong key, tampered data, or corrupted ciphertext
}

// With AAD (must match encryption)
const decryptedWithAAD = await AesGcm.decrypt(
  ciphertextWithAAD,
  key,
  nonce,
  metadata
);

Throws:

InvalidNonceError - Nonce not 12 bytes
DecryptionError - Authentication tag verification fails (data tampered), wrong key/nonce/AAD used, or corrupted ciphertext

Nonce Generation

`generateNonce(): Uint8Array`

Generates cryptographically secure 12-byte nonce.

const nonce = AesGcm.generateNonce();
console.log(nonce); // Uint8Array(12)

// Store nonce with ciphertext (not secret, but must be unique)

Constants

AesGcm.AES128_KEY_SIZE  // 16 bytes (128 bits)
AesGcm.AES256_KEY_SIZE  // 32 bytes (256 bits)
AesGcm.NONCE_SIZE       // 12 bytes (96 bits)
AesGcm.TAG_SIZE         // 16 bytes (128 bits)

Nonce Management

Critical: Never reuse a nonce with the same key!

Safe Nonce Usage

// Generate new nonce for each encryption
const key = await AesGcm.generateKey(256);

const msg1 = new TextEncoder().encode('First message');
const nonce1 = AesGcm.generateNonce();
const ct1 = await AesGcm.encrypt(msg1, key, nonce1);

const msg2 = new TextEncoder().encode('Second message');
const nonce2 = AesGcm.generateNonce(); // New nonce!
const ct2 = await AesGcm.encrypt(msg2, key, nonce2);

Storage Format

Store nonce with ciphertext (nonce is not secret):

// Encrypt
const key = await AesGcm.generateKey(256);
const nonce = AesGcm.generateNonce();
const ciphertext = await AesGcm.encrypt(plaintext, key, nonce);

// Store together (common format: nonce + ciphertext)
const stored = new Uint8Array(nonce.length + ciphertext.length);
stored.set(nonce, 0);
stored.set(ciphertext, nonce.length);

// Later: Extract and decrypt
const extractedNonce = stored.slice(0, AesGcm.NONCE_SIZE);
const extractedCiphertext = stored.slice(AesGcm.NONCE_SIZE);
const decrypted = await AesGcm.decrypt(extractedCiphertext, key, extractedNonce);

Nonce Collision Risk

With random nonces (12 bytes), collision probability:

After 2³² encryptions: ~0.005% chance
After 2⁴⁸ encryptions: 50% chance (birthday paradox)

Recommendations:

Random nonces: Safe for up to ~2³² encryptions per key
Counter-based: Increment counter for each encryption (no collisions)
Key rotation: Generate new key periodically to reset nonce space

// Counter-based nonce (for high-volume scenarios)
import * as Hex from '@tevm/voltaire/Hex';

class NonceCounter {
  constructor() {
    this.counter = 0n;
  }

  next() {
    const counterHex = this.counter.toString(16).padStart(24, '0');
    this.counter++;
    return Hex('0x' + counterHex);
  }
}

const counter = new NonceCounter();
const nonce1 = counter.next();
const nonce2 = counter.next(); // Guaranteed unique

Additional Authenticated Data (AAD)

AAD is authenticated but not encrypted - useful for metadata:

// Encrypt message with metadata
const message = new TextEncoder().encode('Transfer $100 to Alice');
const metadata = new TextEncoder().encode(JSON.stringify({
  timestamp: Date.now(),
  version: '1.0',
  sender: 'Bob'
}));

const key = await AesGcm.generateKey(256);
const nonce = AesGcm.generateNonce();

const ciphertext = await AesGcm.encrypt(message, key, nonce, metadata);

// Metadata is authenticated (tampering will fail decryption)
// But metadata itself is not encrypted (can be read)

Use cases:

Protocol version numbers
Timestamps
User IDs
Packet headers
Database row IDs

Security:

AAD is authenticated (tampering detected)
AAD is NOT encrypted (readable by anyone)
Must provide same AAD for decryption

Password-Based Encryption

Derive key from user password using PBKDF2:

import * as AesGcm from '@tevm/voltaire/AesGcm';

async function encryptWithPassword(plaintext, password) {
  // 1. Generate random salt
  import * as Hex from '@tevm/voltaire/Hex';
  const salt = Hex('0x3e4d5c6b7a8910293847566574839201');

  // 2. Derive key from password
  const key = await AesGcm.deriveKey(password, salt, 100000, 256);

  // 3. Encrypt
  const nonce = AesGcm.generateNonce();
  const ciphertext = await AesGcm.encrypt(plaintext, key, nonce);

  // 4. Return salt + nonce + ciphertext
  return {
    salt,
    nonce,
    ciphertext
  };
}

async function decryptWithPassword(encrypted, password) {
  // 1. Derive same key from password + salt
  const key = await AesGcm.deriveKey(
    password,
    encrypted.salt,
    100000,
    256
  );

  // 2. Decrypt
  return await AesGcm.decrypt(encrypted.ciphertext, key, encrypted.nonce);
}

// Usage
const data = new TextEncoder().encode('Secret data');
const encrypted = await encryptWithPassword(data, 'user-password');

// Store: encrypted.salt, encrypted.nonce, encrypted.ciphertext
// Later:
const decrypted = await decryptWithPassword(encrypted, 'user-password');

Key Storage

Secure Storage Patterns

1. Environment variables (server-side)

// Store base64-encoded key
const key = await AesGcm.generateKey(256);
const keyBytes = await AesGcm.exportKey(key);
const keyBase64 = btoa(String.fromCharCode(...keyBytes));

// Store in .env (keep out of version control!)
// ENCRYPTION_KEY=rK7J...

// Load and use
const storedKeyBytes = Uint8Array(
  atob(process.env.ENCRYPTION_KEY),
  c => c.charCodeAt(0)
);
const storedKey = await AesGcm.importKey(storedKeyBytes);

2. Browser (encrypted with password)

import * as Hex from '@tevm/voltaire/Hex';

// Encrypt master key with user password
async function storeEncryptedKey(masterKey, userPassword) {
  const salt = Hex('0x7f8e9d0c1b2a3948576e8d9c0b1a2938');
  const passwordKey = await AesGcm.deriveKey(userPassword, salt, 100000, 256);

  const masterKeyBytes = await AesGcm.exportKey(masterKey);
  const nonce = AesGcm.generateNonce();
  const encryptedKey = await AesGcm.encrypt(masterKeyBytes, passwordKey, nonce);

  // Store in localStorage
  localStorage.setItem('encryptedKey', JSON.stringify({
    salt: Array(salt),
    nonce: Array(nonce),
    ciphertext: Array(encryptedKey)
  }));
}

async function loadEncryptedKey(userPassword) {
  const stored = JSON.parse(localStorage.getItem('encryptedKey'));
  const salt = new Uint8Array(stored.salt);
  const nonce = new Uint8Array(stored.nonce);
  const ciphertext = new Uint8Array(stored.ciphertext);

  const passwordKey = await AesGcm.deriveKey(userPassword, salt, 100000, 256);
  const masterKeyBytes = await AesGcm.decrypt(ciphertext, passwordKey, nonce);

  return await AesGcm.importKey(masterKeyBytes);
}

3. Hardware Security Modules (HSM)

// Keys never leave secure hardware
// Use HSM APIs to encrypt/decrypt without exposing key

Security

Critical Warnings

1. Never reuse nonce with same key

// DANGEROUS - Same nonce with same key
const key = await AesGcm.generateKey(256);
const nonce = AesGcm.generateNonce();

const ct1 = await AesGcm.encrypt(msg1, key, nonce); // OK
const ct2 = await AesGcm.encrypt(msg2, key, nonce); // BREAKS SECURITY!

// Attacker can XOR ciphertexts to reveal plaintext relationship

2. Use cryptographically secure random

// CORRECT - Uses crypto.getRandomValues()
const nonce = AesGcm.generateNonce();

// WRONG - Never use Math.random() for cryptographic values
// Math.random() is predictable and NOT cryptographically secure!

3. Verify authentication tag (automatic)

// decrypt() verifies tag automatically
try {
  const plaintext = await AesGcm.decrypt(ciphertext, key, nonce);
  // If we reach here, authentication passed
} catch (error) {
  // Authentication failed - data was tampered or wrong key
  console.error('Tampering detected!');
}

4. Protect keys at rest

// WRONG - Store raw key
localStorage.setItem('key', JSON.stringify(keyBytes));

// RIGHT - Encrypt key with password or use secure storage
const encryptedKey = await encryptWithPassword(keyBytes, userPassword);
localStorage.setItem('key', JSON.stringify(encryptedKey));

5. Use strong passwords for derivation

// Weak password = weak encryption
const weakKey = await AesGcm.deriveKey('12345', salt, 100000, 256);

// Strong password = strong encryption
const strongKey = await AesGcm.deriveKey(
  'correct-horse-battery-staple-2024',
  salt,
  100000,
  256
);

Best Practices

1. Key size: Use 256-bit keys for sensitive data

const key = await AesGcm.generateKey(256); // Recommended

2. PBKDF2 iterations: Balance security vs performance

// Minimum: 100,000 iterations
// Recommended: 600,000+ iterations (OWASP 2023)
const key = await AesGcm.deriveKey(password, salt, 600000, 256);

3. Salt randomness: Use 16+ byte random salt

import * as Hex from '@tevm/voltaire/Hex';

const salt = Hex('0xa7b6c5d4e3f2a1b0c9d8e7f6a5b4c3d2');

4. Key rotation: Periodically generate new keys

// Rotate keys every N encryptions or time period
if (encryptionCount > 1000000 || Date.now() - keyCreatedTime > 30 * 86400000) {
  key = await AesGcm.generateKey(256);
  encryptionCount = 0;
  keyCreatedTime = Date.now();
}

5. Clear sensitive memory (when possible)

// After use, zero out key bytes
const keyBytes = await AesGcm.exportKey(key);
// Use key...
keyBytes.fill(0); // Clear memory

Common Attacks

Nonce Reuse Attack:

Same nonce + key reveals XOR of plaintexts
Protection: Always generate new nonce

Key Exhaustion:

Too many encryptions with same key increases collision risk
Protection: Rotate keys periodically

Weak Password:

Brute-force PBKDF2-derived keys
Protection: Strong passwords + high iteration count

Timing Attacks:

Constant-time operations in WebCrypto API
Protection: Use native crypto.subtle (not hand-rolled crypto)

Padding Oracle:

Not applicable to GCM (no padding)
GCM uses stream cipher mode

Performance

Benchmarks (typical)

Encryption speed (AES-256-GCM):

Modern CPU with AES-NI: 1-5 GB/s
Without hardware acceleration: 50-200 MB/s

Key derivation (PBKDF2):

100,000 iterations: ~50-100ms
600,000 iterations: ~300-600ms

Optimization Tips

1. Batch operations when possible

// Encrypt multiple messages
const messages = [...];
const encrypted = await Promise.all(
  messages.map(async msg => {
    const nonce = AesGcm.generateNonce();
    const ct = await AesGcm.encrypt(msg, key, nonce);
    return { nonce, ciphertext: ct };
  })
);

2. Reuse keys (but rotate periodically)

// Generate key once
const key = await AesGcm.generateKey(256);

// Reuse for multiple encryptions (with different nonces!)
for (const message of messages) {
  const nonce = AesGcm.generateNonce();
  await AesGcm.encrypt(message, key, nonce);
}

3. Adjust PBKDF2 iterations for use case

// High security (cold storage)
const key = await AesGcm.deriveKey(password, salt, 1000000, 256);

// Moderate security (frequent decryption)
const key = await AesGcm.deriveKey(password, salt, 100000, 256);

Use Cases

File Encryption

import * as Hex from '@tevm/voltaire/Hex';

async function encryptFile(fileData, password) {
  const salt = Hex('0x9e8d7c6b5a4938271605948372615049');
  const key = await AesGcm.deriveKey(password, salt, 600000, 256);
  const nonce = AesGcm.generateNonce();

  const ciphertext = await AesGcm.encrypt(fileData, key, nonce);

  // Format: salt (16) + nonce (12) + ciphertext + tag (16)
  const encrypted = new Uint8Array(salt.length + nonce.length + ciphertext.length);
  encrypted.set(salt, 0);
  encrypted.set(nonce, 16);
  encrypted.set(ciphertext, 28);

  return encrypted;
}

async function decryptFile(encryptedFile, password) {
  const salt = encryptedFile.slice(0, 16);
  const nonce = encryptedFile.slice(16, 28);
  const ciphertext = encryptedFile.slice(28);

  const key = await AesGcm.deriveKey(password, salt, 600000, 256);
  return await AesGcm.decrypt(ciphertext, key, nonce);
}

Database Field Encryption

class EncryptedDatabase {
  constructor(key) {
    this.key = key;
  }

  async encryptField(value) {
    const plaintext = new TextEncoder().encode(JSON.stringify(value));
    const nonce = AesGcm.generateNonce();
    const ciphertext = await AesGcm.encrypt(plaintext, this.key, nonce);

    return {
      nonce: Array(nonce),
      ciphertext: Array(ciphertext)
    };
  }

  async decryptField(encrypted) {
    const nonce = new Uint8Array(encrypted.nonce);
    const ciphertext = new Uint8Array(encrypted.ciphertext);

    const plaintext = await AesGcm.decrypt(ciphertext, this.key, nonce);
    return JSON.parse(new TextDecoder().decode(plaintext));
  }
}

Secure Messaging

async function sendEncryptedMessage(message, recipientPublicKey, senderPrivateKey) {
  // 1. Derive shared secret (ECDH)
  const sharedSecret = await deriveSharedSecret(senderPrivateKey, recipientPublicKey);

  // 2. Use shared secret as key
  const key = await AesGcm.importKey(sharedSecret);

  // 3. Encrypt message
  const plaintext = new TextEncoder().encode(message);
  const nonce = AesGcm.generateNonce();
  const ciphertext = await AesGcm.encrypt(plaintext, key, nonce);

  return { nonce, ciphertext };
}

Error Handling

All AesGcm functions throw typed errors that extend CryptoError:

Error	Code	When
`InvalidKeyError`	`INVALID_KEY`	Key not 16 or 32 bytes on import
`InvalidNonceError`	`INVALID_NONCE`	Nonce not 12 bytes
`DecryptionError`	`DECRYPTION_FAILED`	Auth tag verification fails, wrong key/nonce/AAD, or ciphertext too short
`AesGcmError`	`AES_GCM_ERROR`	Generic encryption failure

import * as AesGcm from '@tevm/voltaire/AesGcm';
import { DecryptionError, InvalidNonceError, InvalidKeyError } from '@tevm/voltaire/AesGcm';

try {
  const decrypted = await AesGcm.decrypt(ciphertext, key, nonce);
} catch (e) {
  if (e instanceof DecryptionError) {
    console.error('Authentication failed:', e.message);
    console.error('Code:', e.code); // "DECRYPTION_FAILED"
  } else if (e instanceof InvalidNonceError) {
    console.error('Invalid nonce:', e.message);
  }
}

All error classes have:

name - Error class name (e.g., "DecryptionError")
code - Machine-readable error code
message - Human-readable description
docsPath - Link to relevant documentation

Implementation Notes

Uses native WebCrypto API (crypto.subtle)
Hardware-accelerated on modern CPUs (AES-NI)
Constant-time operations (timing attack resistant)
NIST SP 800-38D compliant
128-bit authentication tag (maximum security)
96-bit nonce (12 bytes, standard for GCM)

References

AES-GCM (Effect) - Effect.ts integration with Schema validation

Try it Live

​Overview

​Quick Start

​API Reference

​Key Management

​generateKey(bits: 128 | 256): Promise<CryptoKey>

​deriveKey(password: string | Uint8Array, salt: Uint8Array, iterations: number, bits: 128 | 256): Promise<CryptoKey>

​importKey(keyData: Uint8Array): Promise<CryptoKey>

​exportKey(key: CryptoKey): Promise<Uint8Array>

​Encryption/Decryption

​encrypt(plaintext: Uint8Array, key: CryptoKey, nonce: Uint8Array, additionalData?: Uint8Array): Promise<Uint8Array>

​decrypt(ciphertext: Uint8Array, key: CryptoKey, nonce: Uint8Array, additionalData?: Uint8Array): Promise<Uint8Array>

​Nonce Generation

​generateNonce(): Uint8Array

​Constants

​Nonce Management

​Safe Nonce Usage

​Storage Format

​Nonce Collision Risk

​Additional Authenticated Data (AAD)

​Password-Based Encryption

​Key Storage

​Secure Storage Patterns

​Security

​Critical Warnings

​Best Practices

​Common Attacks

​Performance

​Benchmarks (typical)

​Optimization Tips

​Use Cases

​File Encryption

​Database Field Encryption

​Secure Messaging

​Error Handling

​Implementation Notes

​References

​Related

Overview

Quick Start

API Reference

Key Management

`generateKey(bits: 128 | 256): Promise<CryptoKey>`

`deriveKey(password: string | Uint8Array, salt: Uint8Array, iterations: number, bits: 128 | 256): Promise<CryptoKey>`

`importKey(keyData: Uint8Array): Promise<CryptoKey>`

`exportKey(key: CryptoKey): Promise<Uint8Array>`

Encryption/Decryption

`encrypt(plaintext: Uint8Array, key: CryptoKey, nonce: Uint8Array, additionalData?: Uint8Array): Promise<Uint8Array>`

`decrypt(ciphertext: Uint8Array, key: CryptoKey, nonce: Uint8Array, additionalData?: Uint8Array): Promise<Uint8Array>`

Nonce Generation

`generateNonce(): Uint8Array`

Constants

Nonce Management

Safe Nonce Usage

Storage Format

Nonce Collision Risk

Additional Authenticated Data (AAD)

Password-Based Encryption

Key Storage

Secure Storage Patterns

Security

Critical Warnings

Best Practices

Common Attacks

Performance

Benchmarks (typical)

Optimization Tips

Use Cases

File Encryption

Database Field Encryption

Secure Messaging

Error Handling

Implementation Notes

References

Related