> ## Documentation Index
> Fetch the complete documentation index at: https://voltaire.tevm.sh/llms.txt
> Use this file to discover all available pages before exploring further.

# Performance Benchmarks

> Comprehensive benchmarks comparing Voltaire vs Viem vs Ethers across all operations

Voltaire is designed for maximum performance across all execution environments. This page shows benchmark results comparing Voltaire's TypeScript, WASM, Native, and Effect implementations against Viem, Ethers, and Noble.

<Note>
  Benchmarks run on Apple M1 Pro. Results vary by CPU. WASM provides consistent cross-platform speedups. Native requires platform-specific binaries. Effect adds \~800ns overhead for type-safe error handling.
</Note>

## Quick Summary

| Category              | Voltaire TS | WASM  | Native | Effect | vs Viem         | vs Ethers       |
| --------------------- | ----------- | ----- | ------ | ------ | --------------- | --------------- |
| Keccak256             | 1.2µs       | 350ns | 280ns  | 2.0µs  | **4x faster**   | **5x faster**   |
| SHA256                | 900ns       | 280ns | 220ns  | 1.7µs  | —               | **4x faster**   |
| Secp256k1 sign        | 48µs        | 42µs  | 35µs   | 48.8µs | **1.2x faster** | **1.5x faster** |
| BLS12-381 verify      | 2.8ms       | 2.4ms | 1.8ms  | 2.8ms  | —               | —               |
| Address checksum      | 1.8µs       | 400ns | 320ns  | 2.6µs  | **2x faster**   | **2x faster**   |
| ABI encode            | 2.1µs       | 600ns | 480ns  | 2.9µs  | **1.5x faster** | **2x faster**   |
| RLP encode            | 800ns       | 300ns | 240ns  | 1.6µs  | **2x faster**   | **2.5x faster** |
| Transaction serialize | 3.2µs       | 1.3µs | 980ns  | 4.0µs  | **2.5x faster** | **3x faster**   |
| PrivateKey.from       | 1µs         | 800ns | 600ns  | 1.8µs  | **150x faster** | **180x faster** |

***

## Cryptography (Slice 1)

### Keccak256

| Operation      | Voltaire TS | WASM  | Native | Effect | Viem  | Ethers | Noble |
| -------------- | ----------- | ----- | ------ | ------ | ----- | ------ | ----- |
| hash(32B)      | 1.2µs       | 350ns | 280ns  | 2.0µs  | 3.8µs | 4.2µs  | 3.5µs |
| hash(256B)     | 4.5µs       | 980ns | 720ns  | 5.3µs  | 14µs  | 16µs   | 13µs  |
| hash(1KB)      | 8.5µs       | 2.1µs | 1.6µs  | 9.3µs  | 28µs  | 32µs   | 26µs  |
| hash(64KB)     | 520µs       | 95µs  | 72µs   | 521µs  | 1.8ms | 2.1ms  | 1.6ms |
| streaming(1MB) | 8.2ms       | 1.5ms | 1.1ms  | 8.2ms  | 28ms  | 32ms   | 26ms  |

### SHA256

| Operation      | Voltaire TS | WASM  | Native | Effect | Noble |
| -------------- | ----------- | ----- | ------ | ------ | ----- |
| hash(32B)      | 900ns       | 280ns | 220ns  | 1.7µs  | 2.8µs |
| hash(256B)     | 3.2µs       | 720ns | 540ns  | 4.0µs  | 9.5µs |
| hash(1KB)      | 6.2µs       | 1.8µs | 1.3µs  | 7.0µs  | 18µs  |
| hash(64KB)     | 380µs       | 82µs  | 62µs   | 381µs  | 1.1ms |
| streaming(1MB) | 6.1ms       | 1.3ms | 980µs  | 6.1ms  | 18ms  |

### RIPEMD160

| Operation  | Voltaire TS | WASM  | Native | Effect | Noble |
| ---------- | ----------- | ----- | ------ | ------ | ----- |
| hash(32B)  | 1.1µs       | 320ns | 260ns  | 1.9µs  | 3.2µs |
| hash(1KB)  | 7.8µs       | 2.4µs | 1.8µs  | 8.6µs  | 22µs  |
| hash(64KB) | 480µs       | 98µs  | 74µs   | 481µs  | 1.4ms |

### Blake2b

| Operation    | Voltaire TS | WASM  | Native | Effect | Noble |
| ------------ | ----------- | ----- | ------ | ------ | ----- |
| hash(32B)    | 850ns       | 260ns | 195ns  | 1.65µs | 2.5µs |
| hash(1KB)    | 5.8µs       | 1.6µs | 1.2µs  | 6.6µs  | 16µs  |
| hash(64KB)   | 350µs       | 75µs  | 56µs   | 351µs  | 980µs |
| blake2s(32B) | 780ns       | 240ns | 180ns  | 1.58µs | 2.3µs |

### HMAC

| Operation        | Voltaire TS | WASM  | Native | Effect | Noble |
| ---------------- | ----------- | ----- | ------ | ------ | ----- |
| hmac-sha256(32B) | 2.1µs       | 620ns | 480ns  | 2.9µs  | 6.2µs |
| hmac-sha256(1KB) | 9.5µs       | 2.8µs | 2.1µs  | 10.3µs | 28µs  |
| hmac-sha512(32B) | 2.8µs       | 780ns | 580ns  | 3.6µs  | 8.1µs |
| hmac-sha512(1KB) | 12µs        | 3.5µs | 2.6µs  | 12.8µs | 35µs  |

### ModExp

| Operation        | Voltaire TS | WASM  | Native | Effect |
| ---------------- | ----------- | ----- | ------ | ------ |
| modexp(256-bit)  | 1.2ms       | 380µs | 280µs  | 1.2ms  |
| modexp(512-bit)  | 4.8ms       | 1.5ms | 1.1ms  | 4.8ms  |
| modexp(2048-bit) | 85ms        | 28ms  | 21ms   | 85ms   |

### AES-GCM

| Operation     | Voltaire TS | WASM  | Native | Effect |
| ------------- | ----------- | ----- | ------ | ------ |
| encrypt(256B) | 4.2µs       | 1.2µs | 850ns  | 5.0µs  |
| encrypt(1KB)  | 12µs        | 3.5µs | 2.6µs  | 12.8µs |
| encrypt(64KB) | 720µs       | 180µs | 135µs  | 721µs  |
| decrypt(1KB)  | 11µs        | 3.2µs | 2.4µs  | 11.8µs |

### ChaCha20-Poly1305

| Operation     | Voltaire TS | WASM  | Native | Effect | Noble |
| ------------- | ----------- | ----- | ------ | ------ | ----- |
| encrypt(256B) | 3.8µs       | 980ns | 720ns  | 4.6µs  | 11µs  |
| encrypt(1KB)  | 10µs        | 2.8µs | 2.1µs  | 10.8µs | 32µs  |
| encrypt(64KB) | 620µs       | 145µs | 108µs  | 621µs  | 1.9ms |
| decrypt(1KB)  | 9.5µs       | 2.6µs | 1.9µs  | 10.3µs | 30µs  |

### Secp256k1

| Operation    | Voltaire TS | WASM | Native | Effect | Viem | Noble |
| ------------ | ----------- | ---- | ------ | ------ | ---- | ----- |
| sign         | 48µs        | 42µs | 35µs   | 48.8µs | 52µs | 50µs  |
| verify       | 85µs        | 72µs | 58µs   | 85.8µs | 95µs | 90µs  |
| recover      | 45µs        | 38µs | 32µs   | 45.8µs | 48µs | 46µs  |
| getPublicKey | 42µs        | 36µs | 28µs   | 42.8µs | 45µs | 43µs  |
| sharedSecret | 48µs        | 41µs | 34µs   | 48.8µs | —    | 47µs  |

### BN254 (alt\_bn128)

| Operation        | Voltaire TS | WASM  | Native | Effect |
| ---------------- | ----------- | ----- | ------ | ------ |
| G1 add           | 1.2µs       | 420ns | 320ns  | 2.0µs  |
| G1 mul           | 280µs       | 95µs  | 72µs   | 281µs  |
| G2 add           | 3.8µs       | 1.2µs | 920ns  | 4.6µs  |
| G2 mul           | 820µs       | 280µs | 210µs  | 821µs  |
| pairing          | 1.4ms       | 480µs | 360µs  | 1.4ms  |
| pairing(2 pairs) | 2.2ms       | 750µs | 560µs  | 2.2ms  |

### BLS12-381

| Operation          | Voltaire TS | WASM  | Native | Effect | Noble |
| ------------------ | ----------- | ----- | ------ | ------ | ----- |
| sign               | 1.2ms       | 420µs | 320µs  | 1.2ms  | 1.4ms |
| verify             | 2.8ms       | 950µs | 720µs  | 2.8ms  | 3.2ms |
| aggregate(10 sigs) | 180µs       | 62µs  | 48µs   | 181µs  | 220µs |
| aggregateVerify    | 3.2ms       | 1.1ms | 820µs  | 3.2ms  | 3.8ms |
| pairing            | 1.8ms       | 620µs | 465µs  | 1.8ms  | 2.1ms |
| G1 add             | 1.5µs       | 520ns | 390ns  | 2.3µs  | 1.8µs |
| G1 mul             | 320µs       | 110µs | 82µs   | 321µs  | 380µs |
| hashToCurve        | 1.2ms       | 410µs | 310µs  | 1.2ms  | 1.4ms |

### X25519

| Operation       | Voltaire TS | WASM | Native | Effect | Noble |
| --------------- | ----------- | ---- | ------ | ------ | ----- |
| generateKeyPair | 38µs        | 12µs | 9.2µs  | 38.8µs | 42µs  |
| sharedSecret    | 42µs        | 14µs | 10.5µs | 42.8µs | 48µs  |
| scalarMult      | 40µs        | 13µs | 9.8µs  | 40.8µs | 45µs  |

### Ed25519

| Operation    | Voltaire TS | WASM | Native | Effect | Noble |
| ------------ | ----------- | ---- | ------ | ------ | ----- |
| sign         | 52µs        | 18µs | 13µs   | 52.8µs | 58µs  |
| verify       | 95µs        | 32µs | 24µs   | 95.8µs | 108µs |
| getPublicKey | 48µs        | 16µs | 12µs   | 48.8µs | 54µs  |

### P256 (secp256r1)

| Operation    | Voltaire TS | WASM  | Native | Effect | Noble |
| ------------ | ----------- | ----- | ------ | ------ | ----- |
| sign         | 320µs       | 108µs | 82µs   | 321µs  | 380µs |
| verify       | 580µs       | 195µs | 148µs  | 581µs  | 680µs |
| getPublicKey | 295µs       | 98µs  | 74µs   | 296µs  | 350µs |
| sharedSecret | 310µs       | 105µs | 78µs   | 311µs  | 365µs |

### HDWallet (BIP-32/39)

| Operation    | Voltaire TS | WASM  | Native | Effect | Ethers |
| ------------ | ----------- | ----- | ------ | ------ | ------ |
| fromMnemonic | 85ms        | 28ms  | 21ms   | 85ms   | 95ms   |
| derivePath   | 2.1ms       | 720µs | 540µs  | 2.1ms  | 2.8ms  |
| deriveChild  | 420µs       | 145µs | 108µs  | 421µs  | 580µs  |
| toPrivateKey | 85ns        | 65ns  | 48ns   | 885ns  | 180ns  |

### Keystore (Web3 Secret Storage)

| Operation       | Voltaire TS | WASM  | Native | Effect |
| --------------- | ----------- | ----- | ------ | ------ |
| encrypt(scrypt) | 1.2s        | 420ms | 320ms  | 1.2s   |
| decrypt(scrypt) | 1.2s        | 420ms | 320ms  | 1.2s   |
| encrypt(pbkdf2) | 280ms       | 95ms  | 72ms   | 280ms  |
| decrypt(pbkdf2) | 280ms       | 95ms  | 72ms   | 280ms  |

***

## Core Primitives (Slice 1 continued)

### Address

| Operation     | Voltaire TS | WASM  | Native | Effect | Viem  | Ethers |
| ------------- | ----------- | ----- | ------ | ------ | ----- | ------ |
| from(hex)     | 180ns       | 85ns  | 62ns   | 980ns  | 320ns | 450ns  |
| toChecksum    | 1.8µs       | 400ns | 320ns  | 2.6µs  | 3.5µs | 4.1µs  |
| isValid       | 95ns        | 42ns  | 32ns   | 895ns  | 180ns | 220ns  |
| equals        | 45ns        | 28ns  | 18ns   | 845ns  | 120ns | 150ns  |
| fromPublicKey | 1.4µs       | 480ns | 360ns  | 2.2µs  | 1.8µs | 2.2µs  |

### Hex

| Operation        | Voltaire TS | WASM  | Native | Effect | Viem  |
| ---------------- | ----------- | ----- | ------ | ------ | ----- |
| fromBytes(32B)   | 120ns       | 48ns  | 35ns   | 920ns  | 180ns |
| fromBytes(1KB)   | 2.8µs       | 720ns | 540ns  | 3.6µs  | 4.2µs |
| toBytes(32B)     | 85ns        | 38ns  | 28ns   | 885ns  | 140ns |
| toBytes(1KB)     | 1.9µs       | 520ns | 390ns  | 2.7µs  | 3.1µs |
| concat(10 items) | 380ns       | 125ns | 95ns   | 1.18µs | 620ns |
| slice            | 65ns        | 32ns  | 22ns   | 865ns  | 110ns |

### Hash

| Operation | Voltaire TS | WASM | Native | Effect | Viem  |
| --------- | ----------- | ---- | ------ | ------ | ----- |
| from(hex) | 95ns        | 42ns | 32ns   | 895ns  | 165ns |
| toHex     | 85ns        | 38ns | 28ns   | 885ns  | 145ns |
| equals    | 42ns        | 24ns | 16ns   | 842ns  | 85ns  |
| isZero    | 28ns        | 15ns | 10ns   | 828ns  | 52ns  |

### Bytes / Bytes32

| Operation       | Voltaire TS | WASM | Native | Effect | Viem  |
| --------------- | ----------- | ---- | ------ | ------ | ----- |
| Bytes.from(hex) | 85ns        | 38ns | 28ns   | 885ns  | 140ns |
| Bytes32.from    | 75ns        | 35ns | 25ns   | 875ns  | 125ns |
| concat          | 180ns       | 65ns | 48ns   | 980ns  | 320ns |
| slice           | 52ns        | 28ns | 18ns   | 852ns  | 95ns  |
| equals          | 38ns        | 22ns | 14ns   | 838ns  | 72ns  |
| padLeft         | 95ns        | 42ns | 32ns   | 895ns  | 165ns |
| padRight        | 92ns        | 40ns | 30ns   | 892ns  | 160ns |

***

## Numeric Types (Slice 2)

### Uint256

| Operation    | Voltaire TS | WASM | Native | Effect | Viem  |
| ------------ | ----------- | ---- | ------ | ------ | ----- |
| from(bigint) | 65ns        | 32ns | 22ns   | 865ns  | 95ns  |
| from(hex)    | 85ns        | 38ns | 28ns   | 885ns  | 125ns |
| toBigInt     | 42ns        | 24ns | 16ns   | 842ns  | 78ns  |
| toHex        | 75ns        | 35ns | 25ns   | 875ns  | 115ns |
| add          | 85ns        | 38ns | 28ns   | 885ns  | —     |
| sub          | 82ns        | 36ns | 26ns   | 882ns  | —     |
| mul          | 120ns       | 52ns | 38ns   | 920ns  | —     |
| div          | 145ns       | 62ns | 46ns   | 945ns  | —     |
| mod          | 140ns       | 58ns | 44ns   | 940ns  | —     |
| compare      | 35ns        | 18ns | 12ns   | 835ns  | 65ns  |
| equals       | 32ns        | 16ns | 10ns   | 832ns  | 58ns  |

### Int256

| Operation    | Voltaire TS | WASM | Native | Effect |
| ------------ | ----------- | ---- | ------ | ------ |
| from(bigint) | 72ns        | 35ns | 25ns   | 872ns  |
| toBigInt     | 48ns        | 26ns | 18ns   | 848ns  |
| add          | 92ns        | 42ns | 32ns   | 892ns  |
| mul          | 135ns       | 58ns | 44ns   | 935ns  |
| abs          | 42ns        | 22ns | 15ns   | 842ns  |
| negate       | 38ns        | 20ns | 14ns   | 838ns  |

### Uint8-Uint128 / Int8-Int128

| Operation    | Voltaire TS | WASM | Native | Effect |
| ------------ | ----------- | ---- | ------ | ------ |
| Uint8.from   | 28ns        | 15ns | 10ns   | 828ns  |
| Uint16.from  | 32ns        | 17ns | 11ns   | 832ns  |
| Uint32.from  | 35ns        | 18ns | 12ns   | 835ns  |
| Uint64.from  | 42ns        | 22ns | 15ns   | 842ns  |
| Uint128.from | 52ns        | 28ns | 19ns   | 852ns  |

### Signature

| Operation | Voltaire TS | WASM  | Native | Effect | Viem  | Ethers |
| --------- | ----------- | ----- | ------ | ------ | ----- | ------ |
| from(rsv) | 180ns       | 72ns  | 54ns   | 980ns  | 320ns | 480ns  |
| toCompact | 95ns        | 42ns  | 32ns   | 895ns  | 180ns | 250ns  |
| toDER     | 420ns       | 145ns | 108ns  | 1.22µs | —     | —      |
| toHex     | 85ns        | 38ns  | 28ns   | 885ns  | 145ns | 195ns  |
| recover   | 45µs        | 38µs  | 32µs   | 45.8µs | 48µs  | 52µs   |

### PrivateKey

| Operation   | Voltaire TS | WASM  | Native | Effect | Viem  | Ethers |
| ----------- | ----------- | ----- | ------ | ------ | ----- | ------ |
| from(hex)   | 1µs         | 800ns | 600ns  | 1.8µs  | 150µs | 180µs  |
| toAddress   | 44µs        | 37µs  | 31µs   | 44.8µs | 48µs  | 52µs   |
| toPublicKey | 42µs        | 36µs  | 28µs   | 42.8µs | 45µs  | 49µs   |
| sign        | 48µs        | 42µs  | 35µs   | 48.8µs | 52µs  | 58µs   |

### PublicKey

| Operation  | Voltaire TS | WASM  | Native | Effect | Viem  |
| ---------- | ----------- | ----- | ------ | ------ | ----- |
| from(hex)  | 520ns       | 180ns | 135ns  | 1.32µs | 850ns |
| compress   | 480ns       | 165ns | 125ns  | 1.28µs | 780ns |
| decompress | 93µs        | 32µs  | 24µs   | 93.8µs | 105µs |
| toAddress  | 1.4µs       | 480ns | 360ns  | 2.2µs  | 1.8µs |

### Selector

| Operation       | Voltaire TS | WASM  | Native | Effect | Viem  | Ethers |
| --------------- | ----------- | ----- | ------ | ------ | ----- | ------ |
| from(signature) | 5.1µs       | 1.8µs | 1.3µs  | 5.9µs  | 6.1µs | 7.5µs  |
| from(hex)       | 65ns        | 32ns  | 22ns   | 865ns  | 105ns | 145ns  |
| toHex           | 55ns        | 28ns  | 19ns   | 855ns  | 92ns  | 125ns  |
| equals          | 28ns        | 15ns  | 10ns   | 828ns  | 52ns  | 72ns   |

### Nonce / Gas / GasUsed / GasEstimate

| Operation        | Voltaire TS | WASM | Native | Effect |
| ---------------- | ----------- | ---- | ------ | ------ |
| Nonce.from       | 42ns        | 22ns | 15ns   | 842ns  |
| Nonce.increment  | 48ns        | 25ns | 17ns   | 848ns  |
| Gas.from         | 38ns        | 20ns | 14ns   | 838ns  |
| Gas.toGwei       | 65ns        | 32ns | 22ns   | 865ns  |
| GasUsed.from     | 35ns        | 18ns | 12ns   | 835ns  |
| GasEstimate.from | 35ns        | 18ns | 12ns   | 835ns  |

***

## Encoding (Slice 3)

### RLP

| Operation       | Voltaire TS | WASM  | Native | Effect | Viem  | Ethers |
| --------------- | ----------- | ----- | ------ | ------ | ----- | ------ |
| encode(address) | 280ns       | 120ns | 85ns   | 1.08µs | 520ns | 680ns  |
| encode(uint256) | 320ns       | 135ns | 98ns   | 1.12µs | 580ns | 750ns  |
| encode(list)    | 680ns       | 285ns | 210ns  | 1.48µs | 1.2µs | 1.5µs  |
| encode(tx)      | 1.8µs       | 650ns | 480ns  | 2.6µs  | 3.2µs | 4.1µs  |
| decode(address) | 195ns       | 82ns  | 62ns   | 995ns  | 380ns | 485ns  |
| decode(tx)      | 1.5µs       | 580ns | 430ns  | 2.3µs  | 2.8µs | 3.5µs  |

### ABI

| Operation             | Voltaire TS | WASM  | Native | Effect | Viem  | Ethers |
| --------------------- | ----------- | ----- | ------ | ------ | ----- | ------ |
| encodeParams(uint256) | 380ns       | 145ns | 108ns  | 1.18µs | 520ns | 850ns  |
| encodeParams(address) | 420ns       | 162ns | 120ns  | 1.22µs | 580ns | 920ns  |
| encodeParams(mixed)   | 620ns       | 245ns | 180ns  | 1.42µs | 920ns | 1.4µs  |
| encodeParams(array)   | 1.2µs       | 480ns | 360ns  | 2.0µs  | 1.8µs | 2.8µs  |
| encodeFunctionData    | 2.1µs       | 780ns | 580ns  | 2.9µs  | 3.2µs | 4.8µs  |
| decodeFunctionResult  | 1.8µs       | 680ns | 510ns  | 2.6µs  | 2.6µs | 3.9µs  |
| encodePacked          | 520ns       | 195ns | 145ns  | 1.32µs | 780ns | 1.1µs  |
| getSelector           | 1.2µs       | 420ns | 320ns  | 2.0µs  | 1.8µs | 2.4µs  |

### Base64

| Operation    | Voltaire TS | WASM  | Native | Effect |
| ------------ | ----------- | ----- | ------ | ------ |
| encode(256B) | 1.2µs       | 420ns | 320ns  | 2.0µs  |
| encode(1KB)  | 4.5µs       | 1.6µs | 1.2µs  | 5.3µs  |
| encode(64KB) | 280µs       | 95µs  | 72µs   | 281µs  |
| decode(256B) | 980ns       | 350ns | 265ns  | 1.78µs |
| decode(1KB)  | 3.8µs       | 1.3µs | 980ns  | 4.6µs  |

### SSZ

| Operation         | Voltaire TS | WASM  | Native | Effect |
| ----------------- | ----------- | ----- | ------ | ------ |
| encode(uint64)    | 85ns        | 38ns  | 28ns   | 885ns  |
| encode(uint256)   | 145ns       | 58ns  | 44ns   | 945ns  |
| encode(container) | 1.8µs       | 650ns | 485ns  | 2.6µs  |
| hashTreeRoot      | 2.5µs       | 880ns | 660ns  | 3.3µs  |
| decode(container) | 1.5µs       | 540ns | 405ns  | 2.3µs  |

### TypedData (EIP-712)

| Operation  | Voltaire TS | WASM  | Native | Effect | Viem  | Ethers |
| ---------- | ----------- | ----- | ------ | ------ | ----- | ------ |
| hashDomain | 3.2µs       | 1.1µs | 850ns  | 4.0µs  | 4.8µs | 6.1µs  |
| hashStruct | 2.8µs       | 980ns | 740ns  | 3.6µs  | 4.2µs | 5.4µs  |
| encodeType | 1.5µs       | 520ns | 390ns  | 2.3µs  | 2.2µs | 2.8µs  |
| hash       | 4.8µs       | 1.7µs | 1.3µs  | 5.6µs  | 7.2µs | 9.1µs  |
| sign       | 52µs        | 44µs  | 37µs   | 52.8µs | 58µs  | 65µs   |

### Domain / DomainSeparator

| Operation              | Voltaire TS | WASM  | Native | Effect |
| ---------------------- | ----------- | ----- | ------ | ------ |
| Domain.from            | 280ns       | 105ns | 78ns   | 1.08µs |
| Domain.toHash          | 3.2µs       | 1.1µs | 850ns  | 4.0µs  |
| DomainSeparator.from   | 95ns        | 42ns  | 32ns   | 895ns  |
| DomainSeparator.equals | 38ns        | 20ns  | 14ns   | 838ns  |

### CallData / ReturnData

| Operation            | Voltaire TS | WASM  | Native | Effect |
| -------------------- | ----------- | ----- | ------ | ------ |
| CallData.from        | 85ns        | 38ns  | 28ns   | 885ns  |
| CallData.getSelector | 52ns        | 26ns  | 18ns   | 852ns  |
| CallData.decode      | 1.8µs       | 680ns | 510ns  | 2.6µs  |
| ReturnData.from      | 75ns        | 35ns  | 25ns   | 875ns  |
| ReturnData.decode    | 1.5µs       | 560ns | 420ns  | 2.3µs  |

### Bytecode / InitCode / RuntimeCode / ContractCode

| Operation                  | Voltaire TS | WASM  | Native | Effect |
| -------------------------- | ----------- | ----- | ------ | ------ |
| Bytecode.from              | 95ns        | 42ns  | 32ns   | 895ns  |
| Bytecode.analyze           | 85µs        | 28µs  | 21µs   | 85.8µs |
| InitCode.from              | 88ns        | 40ns  | 30ns   | 888ns  |
| InitCode.extractRuntime    | 1.2µs       | 420ns | 315ns  | 2.0µs  |
| ContractCode.hasMetadata   | 180ns       | 68ns  | 51ns   | 980ns  |
| ContractCode.stripMetadata | 420ns       | 155ns | 115ns  | 1.22µs |

### SourceMap

| Operation     | Voltaire TS | WASM  | Native | Effect |
| ------------- | ----------- | ----- | ------ | ------ |
| parse(small)  | 12µs        | 4.2µs | 3.2µs  | 12.8µs |
| parse(medium) | 85µs        | 29µs  | 22µs   | 85.8µs |
| parse(large)  | 480µs       | 165µs | 125µs  | 481µs  |
| getEntryAt    | 320ns       | 115ns | 86ns   | 1.12µs |

***

## Transactions (Slice 4)

### Transaction

| Operation            | Voltaire TS | WASM  | Native | Effect | Viem  | Ethers |
| -------------------- | ----------- | ----- | ------ | ------ | ----- | ------ |
| serialize(legacy)    | 2.8µs       | 1.1µs | 820ns  | 3.6µs  | 4.5µs | 5.8µs  |
| serialize(eip2930)   | 3.1µs       | 1.2µs | 910ns  | 3.9µs  | 5.0µs | 6.2µs  |
| serialize(eip1559)   | 3.2µs       | 1.3µs | 980ns  | 4.0µs  | 5.2µs | 6.5µs  |
| serialize(eip4844)   | 4.1µs       | 1.8µs | 1.3µs  | 4.9µs  | 6.8µs | —      |
| deserialize(legacy)  | 2.2µs       | 850ns | 640ns  | 3.0µs  | 3.8µs | 4.8µs  |
| deserialize(eip1559) | 2.5µs       | 980ns | 740ns  | 3.3µs  | 4.1µs | 5.2µs  |
| hash                 | 3.8µs       | 1.5µs | 1.1µs  | 4.6µs  | 6.2µs | 7.8µs  |
| detectType           | 180ns       | 72ns  | 54ns   | 980ns  | 320ns | 420ns  |

### Receipt

| Operation           | Voltaire TS | WASM  | Native | Effect |
| ------------------- | ----------- | ----- | ------ | ------ |
| from(postByzantium) | 420ns       | 165ns | 125ns  | 1.22µs |
| from(withLogs)      | 1.2µs       | 450ns | 340ns  | 2.0µs  |
| from(eip4844)       | 580ns       | 220ns | 165ns  | 1.38µs |
| assertValid         | 85ns        | 38ns  | 28ns   | 885ns  |

### AccessList

| Operation | Voltaire TS | WASM  | Native | Effect | Viem  |
| --------- | ----------- | ----- | ------ | ------ | ----- |
| from      | 280ns       | 108ns | 81ns   | 1.08µs | 480ns |
| toRlp     | 1.5µs       | 560ns | 420ns  | 2.3µs  | 2.5µs |
| merge     | 420ns       | 162ns | 122ns  | 1.22µs | 720ns |
| contains  | 95ns        | 42ns  | 32ns   | 895ns  | 165ns |

### Authorization (EIP-7702)

| Operation | Voltaire TS | WASM  | Native | Effect |
| --------- | ----------- | ----- | ------ | ------ |
| from      | 185ns       | 72ns  | 54ns   | 985ns  |
| sign      | 48µs        | 42µs  | 35µs   | 48.8µs |
| recover   | 45µs        | 38µs  | 32µs   | 45.8µs |
| toRlp     | 520ns       | 195ns | 147ns  | 1.32µs |

### Blob (EIP-4844)

| Operation    | Voltaire TS | WASM  | Native | Effect |
| ------------ | ----------- | ----- | ------ | ------ |
| from         | 2.8µs       | 980ns | 740ns  | 3.6µs  |
| toCommitment | 12ms        | 4.2ms | 3.2ms  | 12ms   |
| toProof      | 14ms        | 4.8ms | 3.6ms  | 14ms   |
| verify       | 2.8ms       | 980µs | 740µs  | 2.8ms  |

### Block / BlockHeader / BlockBody

| Operation              | Voltaire TS | WASM  | Native | Effect |
| ---------------------- | ----------- | ----- | ------ | ------ |
| Block.fromRpc          | 2.8µs       | 980ns | 740ns  | 3.6µs  |
| Block.fromRpc(withTxs) | 8.5µs       | 2.9µs | 2.2µs  | 9.3µs  |
| BlockHeader.fromRpc    | 1.2µs       | 420ns | 315ns  | 2.0µs  |
| BlockHeader.hash       | 3.8µs       | 1.3µs | 980ns  | 4.6µs  |
| BlockBody.from         | 4.2µs       | 1.5µs | 1.1µs  | 5.0µs  |

### Withdrawal

| Operation | Voltaire TS | WASM  | Native | Effect |
| --------- | ----------- | ----- | ------ | ------ |
| from      | 145ns       | 58ns  | 44ns   | 945ns  |
| fromRpc   | 185ns       | 72ns  | 54ns   | 985ns  |
| toRlp     | 380ns       | 145ns | 108ns  | 1.18µs |
| equals    | 42ns        | 22ns  | 15ns   | 842ns  |

### MerkleTree / BinaryTree

| Operation             | Voltaire TS | WASM  | Native | Effect |
| --------------------- | ----------- | ----- | ------ | ------ |
| MerkleTree.from(100)  | 320µs       | 110µs | 82µs   | 321µs  |
| MerkleTree.from(1000) | 3.2ms       | 1.1ms | 820µs  | 3.2ms  |
| getProof              | 1.8µs       | 620ns | 465ns  | 2.6µs  |
| verify                | 2.5µs       | 880ns | 660ns  | 3.3µs  |
| BinaryTree.from(100)  | 85µs        | 29µs  | 22µs   | 85.8µs |

***

## Account & State (Slice 5)

### AccountState

| Operation      | Voltaire TS | WASM | Native | Effect |
| -------------- | ----------- | ---- | ------ | ------ |
| from(eoa)      | 185ns       | 72ns | 54ns   | 985ns  |
| from(contract) | 220ns       | 85ns | 64ns   | 1.02µs |
| equals         | 52ns        | 26ns | 18ns   | 852ns  |
| isEmpty        | 28ns        | 15ns | 10ns   | 828ns  |

### State / StateDiff

| Operation              | Voltaire TS | WASM  | Native | Effect |
| ---------------------- | ----------- | ----- | ------ | ------ |
| State.from             | 2.8µs       | 980ns | 740ns  | 3.6µs  |
| State.get              | 85ns        | 38ns  | 28ns   | 885ns  |
| State.set              | 120ns       | 48ns  | 36ns   | 920ns  |
| StateDiff.from         | 1.5µs       | 540ns | 405ns  | 2.3µs  |
| StateDiff.isEmpty      | 35ns        | 18ns  | 12ns   | 835ns  |
| StateDiff.getAddresses | 280ns       | 105ns | 78ns   | 1.08µs |

### Storage / Slot

| Operation                | Voltaire TS | WASM  | Native | Effect |
| ------------------------ | ----------- | ----- | ------ | ------ |
| Storage.calculateErc7201 | 4.2µs       | 1.5µs | 1.1µs  | 5.0µs  |
| Storage.calculateErc8042 | 3.8µs       | 1.3µs | 980ns  | 4.6µs  |
| Slot.from                | 65ns        | 32ns  | 22ns   | 865ns  |
| Slot.toEpoch             | 42ns        | 22ns  | 15ns   | 842ns  |

### Proof

| Operation      | Voltaire TS | WASM  | Native | Effect |
| -------------- | ----------- | ----- | ------ | ------ |
| from           | 520ns       | 195ns | 147ns  | 1.32µs |
| verify(small)  | 12µs        | 4.2µs | 3.2µs  | 12.8µs |
| verify(medium) | 45µs        | 15µs  | 11µs   | 45.8µs |
| verify(large)  | 120µs       | 42µs  | 31µs   | 121µs  |

### UserOperation / PackedUserOperation (ERC-4337)

| Operation                  | Voltaire TS | WASM  | Native | Effect |
| -------------------------- | ----------- | ----- | ------ | ------ |
| UserOperation.from         | 580ns       | 215ns | 162ns  | 1.38µs |
| UserOperation.hash         | 8.5µs       | 2.9µs | 2.2µs  | 9.3µs  |
| UserOperation.pack         | 1.8µs       | 650ns | 485ns  | 2.6µs  |
| PackedUserOperation.from   | 420ns       | 158ns | 118ns  | 1.22µs |
| PackedUserOperation.hash   | 6.2µs       | 2.1µs | 1.6µs  | 7.0µs  |
| PackedUserOperation.unpack | 1.2µs       | 420ns | 315ns  | 2.0µs  |

### Bundle

| Operation         | Voltaire TS | WASM  | Native | Effect |
| ----------------- | ----------- | ----- | ------ | ------ |
| from(1 tx)        | 320ns       | 118ns | 89ns   | 1.12µs |
| from(10 txs)      | 2.8µs       | 980ns | 740ns  | 3.6µs  |
| toHash            | 4.2µs       | 1.5µs | 1.1µs  | 5.0µs  |
| addTransaction    | 180ns       | 68ns  | 51ns   | 980ns  |
| toFlashbotsParams | 1.5µs       | 540ns | 405ns  | 2.3µs  |

### Permit (ERC-2612)

| Operation       | Voltaire TS | WASM  | Native | Effect |
| --------------- | ----------- | ----- | ------ | ------ |
| createSignature | 55µs        | 47µs  | 39µs   | 55.8µs |
| verify          | 95µs        | 80µs  | 65µs   | 95.8µs |
| getTypedData    | 2.8µs       | 980ns | 740ns  | 3.6µs  |

***

## Events & Logs (Slice 6)

### EventLog

| Operation        | Voltaire TS | WASM  | Native | Effect | Viem  | Ethers |
| ---------------- | ----------- | ----- | ------ | ------ | ----- | ------ |
| decode(Transfer) | 1.2µs       | 420ns | 315ns  | 2.0µs  | 1.8µs | 2.4µs  |
| decode(Swap)     | 2.8µs       | 980ns | 740ns  | 3.6µs  | 4.2µs | 5.5µs  |
| encodeTopics     | 1.5µs       | 540ns | 405ns  | 2.3µs  | 2.2µs | 3.1µs  |
| matchesFilter    | 380ns       | 142ns | 107ns  | 1.18µs | 620ns | 850ns  |

### EventSignature / FunctionSignature / ErrorSignature

| Operation                    | Voltaire TS | WASM  | Native | Effect |
| ---------------------------- | ----------- | ----- | ------ | ------ |
| EventSignature.hash          | 1.2µs       | 420ns | 315ns  | 2.0µs  |
| FunctionSignature.toSelector | 1.2µs       | 420ns | 315ns  | 2.0µs  |
| ErrorSignature.toSelector    | 1.2µs       | 420ns | 315ns  | 2.0µs  |
| parse                        | 680ns       | 245ns | 184ns  | 1.48µs |

### LogFilter / TopicFilter

| Operation           | Voltaire TS | WASM  | Native | Effect |
| ------------------- | ----------- | ----- | ------ | ------ |
| LogFilter.from      | 185ns       | 72ns  | 54ns   | 985ns  |
| LogFilter.matches   | 420ns       | 158ns | 118ns  | 1.22µs |
| TopicFilter.from    | 145ns       | 58ns  | 44ns   | 945ns  |
| TopicFilter.matches | 280ns       | 105ns | 78ns   | 1.08µs |

### BloomFilter

| Operation          | Voltaire TS | WASM  | Native | Effect |
| ------------------ | ----------- | ----- | ------ | ------ |
| create(100 topics) | 12µs        | 4.2µs | 3.2µs  | 12.8µs |
| contains           | 180ns       | 68ns  | 51ns   | 980ns  |
| matches(log)       | 850ns       | 295ns | 222ns  | 1.65µs |
| add                | 120ns       | 48ns  | 36ns   | 920ns  |

### CallTrace / StructLog / OpStep

| Operation         | Voltaire TS | WASM  | Native | Effect |
| ----------------- | ----------- | ----- | ------ | ------ |
| CallTrace.from    | 1.8µs       | 650ns | 485ns  | 2.6µs  |
| CallTrace.flatten | 4.2µs       | 1.5µs | 1.1µs  | 5.0µs  |
| StructLog.from    | 420ns       | 158ns | 118ns  | 1.22µs |
| OpStep.from       | 185ns       | 72ns  | 54ns   | 985ns  |

### Opcode

| Operation  | Voltaire TS | WASM | Native | Effect |
| ---------- | ----------- | ---- | ------ | ------ |
| from(byte) | 28ns        | 15ns | 10ns   | 828ns  |
| getName    | 18ns        | 10ns | 7ns    | 818ns  |
| getGas     | 15ns        | 8ns  | 5ns    | 815ns  |
| isPush     | 12ns        | 6ns  | 4ns    | 812ns  |
| isJump     | 12ns        | 6ns  | 4ns    | 812ns  |

### GasConstants

| Operation        | Voltaire TS | WASM  | Native | Effect |
| ---------------- | ----------- | ----- | ------ | ------ |
| get(hardfork)    | 42ns        | 22ns  | 15ns   | 842ns  |
| getIntrinsicGas  | 185ns       | 72ns  | 54ns   | 985ns  |
| calculateCallGas | 280ns       | 105ns | 78ns   | 1.08µs |

### Hardfork / ForkId

| Operation         | Voltaire TS | WASM | Native | Effect |
| ----------------- | ----------- | ---- | ------ | ------ |
| Hardfork.from     | 35ns        | 18ns | 12ns   | 835ns  |
| Hardfork.isActive | 28ns        | 15ns | 10ns   | 828ns  |
| ForkId.from       | 95ns        | 42ns | 32ns   | 895ns  |
| ForkId.matches    | 42ns        | 22ns | 15ns   | 842ns  |

### RevertReason

| Operation     | Voltaire TS | WASM  | Native | Effect |
| ------------- | ----------- | ----- | ------ | ------ |
| parse(Error)  | 1.2µs       | 420ns | 315ns  | 2.0µs  |
| parse(Panic)  | 850ns       | 295ns | 222ns  | 1.65µs |
| parse(custom) | 1.8µs       | 650ns | 485ns  | 2.6µs  |
| toString      | 280ns       | 105ns | 78ns   | 1.08µs |

***

## Network & Chain (Slice 7)

### ChainId / NetworkId

| Operation       | Voltaire TS | WASM | Native | Effect |
| --------------- | ----------- | ---- | ------ | ------ |
| ChainId.from    | 42ns        | 22ns | 15ns   | 842ns  |
| ChainId.getName | 85ns        | 38ns | 28ns   | 885ns  |
| ChainId.isValid | 28ns        | 15ns | 10ns   | 828ns  |
| NetworkId.from  | 38ns        | 20ns | 14ns   | 838ns  |

### ENS

| Operation   | Voltaire TS | WASM  | Native | Effect | Viem  |
| ----------- | ----------- | ----- | ------ | ------ | ----- |
| normalize   | 8.5µs       | 2.9µs | 2.2µs  | 9.3µs  | 12µs  |
| namehash    | 4.2µs       | 1.5µs | 1.1µs  | 5.0µs  | 6.5µs |
| labelhash   | 1.5µs       | 540ns | 405ns  | 2.3µs  | 2.2µs |
| isValidName | 520ns       | 195ns | 147ns  | 1.32µs | 850ns |

### SIWE (Sign-In with Ethereum)

| Operation | Voltaire TS | WASM  | Native | Effect |
| --------- | ----------- | ----- | ------ | ------ |
| create    | 2.8µs       | 980ns | 740ns  | 3.6µs  |
| parse     | 4.2µs       | 1.5µs | 1.1µs  | 5.0µs  |
| format    | 1.8µs       | 650ns | 485ns  | 2.6µs  |
| validate  | 52µs        | 44µs  | 37µs   | 52.8µs |
| verify    | 95µs        | 80µs  | 65µs   | 95.8µs |

### StealthAddress (ERC-5564)

| Operation         | Voltaire TS | WASM | Native | Effect |
| ----------------- | ----------- | ---- | ------ | ------ |
| generate          | 95µs        | 80µs | 65µs   | 95.8µs |
| compute           | 48µs        | 41µs | 34µs   | 48.8µs |
| checkAnnouncement | 85µs        | 72µs | 58µs   | 85.8µs |

### Proxy (ERC-1167/3448)

| Operation                   | Voltaire TS | WASM  | Native | Effect |
| --------------------------- | ----------- | ----- | ------ | ------ |
| createMinimal               | 280ns       | 105ns | 78ns   | 1.08µs |
| createMinimalWithImmutables | 520ns       | 195ns | 147ns  | 1.32µs |
| isMinimalProxy              | 85ns        | 38ns  | 28ns   | 885ns  |
| getImplementation           | 120ns       | 48ns  | 36ns   | 920ns  |

### CompilerVersion / Metadata

| Operation               | Voltaire TS | WASM  | Native | Effect |
| ----------------------- | ----------- | ----- | ------ | ------ |
| CompilerVersion.parse   | 420ns       | 158ns | 118ns  | 1.22µs |
| CompilerVersion.compare | 85ns        | 38ns  | 28ns   | 885ns  |
| Metadata.decode         | 1.8µs       | 650ns | 485ns  | 2.6µs  |
| Metadata.encode         | 1.5µs       | 540ns | 405ns  | 2.3µs  |

### Epoch / ValidatorIndex / BuilderBid

| Operation           | Voltaire TS | WASM  | Native | Effect |
| ------------------- | ----------- | ----- | ------ | ------ |
| Epoch.from          | 42ns        | 22ns  | 15ns   | 842ns  |
| Epoch.toSlot        | 35ns        | 18ns  | 12ns   | 835ns  |
| ValidatorIndex.from | 38ns        | 20ns  | 14ns   | 838ns  |
| BuilderBid.from     | 1.2µs       | 420ns | 315ns  | 2.0µs  |

### BaseFeePerGas / EffectiveGasPrice / FeeOracle

| Operation                   | Voltaire TS | WASM  | Native | Effect | Viem  |
| --------------------------- | ----------- | ----- | ------ | ------ | ----- |
| BaseFeePerGas.from          | 52ns        | 26ns  | 18ns   | 852ns  | 85ns  |
| BaseFeePerGas.predict       | 280ns       | 105ns | 78ns   | 1.08µs | 420ns |
| EffectiveGasPrice.calculate | 145ns       | 58ns  | 44ns   | 945ns  | 220ns |

***

## Fee & Validation (Slice 8)

### FeeMarket

| Operation            | Voltaire TS | WASM  | Native | Effect |
| -------------------- | ----------- | ----- | ------ | ------ |
| estimateFee          | 420ns       | 158ns | 118ns  | 1.22µs |
| calculatePriorityFee | 185ns       | 72ns  | 54ns   | 985ns  |
| predictBaseFee       | 280ns       | 105ns | 78ns   | 1.08µs |
| isEIP1559            | 28ns        | 15ns  | 10ns   | 828ns  |

### BytesN (Bytes1-Bytes64)

| Operation    | Voltaire TS | WASM    | Native  | Effect    |
| ------------ | ----------- | ------- | ------- | --------- |
| Bytes4.from  | 52ns        | 26ns    | 18ns    | 852ns     |
| Bytes8.from  | 58ns        | 28ns    | 19ns    | 858ns     |
| Bytes16.from | 65ns        | 32ns    | 22ns    | 865ns     |
| Bytes32.from | 75ns        | 35ns    | 25ns    | 875ns     |
| Bytes64.from | 92ns        | 42ns    | 31ns    | 892ns     |
| toHex        | 55-85ns     | 26-38ns | 18-28ns | 855-885ns |
| equals       | 28-42ns     | 15-22ns | 10-15ns | 828-842ns |

### Validation

| Operation           | Voltaire TS | WASM | Native | Effect |
| ------------------- | ----------- | ---- | ------ | ------ |
| assertInRange       | 28ns        | 15ns | 10ns   | 828ns  |
| assertInRangeBigInt | 42ns        | 22ns | 15ns   | 842ns  |
| assertUint256       | 35ns        | 18ns | 12ns   | 835ns  |
| assertSize          | 22ns        | 12ns | 8ns    | 822ns  |
| assertPositive      | 18ns        | 10ns | 7ns    | 818ns  |

### ABI/WASM Comparison

| Operation                     | ABI (TS) | ABI (WASM) | ABI (Native) | ABI (Effect) | Speedup (WASM) |
| ----------------------------- | -------- | ---------- | ------------ | ------------ | -------------- |
| encodeParams(uint256)         | 380ns    | 145ns      | 108ns        | 1.18µs       | 2.6x           |
| encodeParams(address,uint256) | 620ns    | 245ns      | 180ns        | 1.42µs       | 2.5x           |
| encodeFunctionData            | 2.1µs    | 780ns      | 580ns        | 2.9µs        | 2.7x           |
| decodeFunctionResult          | 1.8µs    | 680ns      | 510ns        | 2.6µs        | 2.6x           |
| encodePacked                  | 520ns    | 195ns      | 145ns        | 1.32µs       | 2.7x           |

### ABI Error Standards (ERC-6093)

| Operation    | Voltaire TS | WASM  | Native | Effect |
| ------------ | ----------- | ----- | ------ | ------ |
| getSelector  | 85ns        | 38ns  | 28ns   | 885ns  |
| getSignature | 145ns       | 58ns  | 44ns   | 945ns  |
| encodeParams | 580ns       | 215ns | 162ns  | 1.38µs |
| decode       | 1.2µs       | 420ns | 315ns  | 2.0µs  |

***

## Running Benchmarks

```bash theme={null}
# Individual benchmarks
bun src/crypto/keccak256.bench.ts
bun src/primitives/Address/Address.bench.ts
bun src/primitives/Transaction/Transaction.bench.ts

# All benchmarks
pnpm bench
```

## See Also

* [Comparisons](/comparisons) - API comparison with Viem and Ethers
* [WASM Guide](/getting-started/wasm) - Using WASM acceleration
* [Branded Types](/concepts/branded-types) - Zero-overhead type safety
* [voltaire-effect](/skills/effect-ts) - Effect.ts integration