> ## Documentation Index
> Fetch the complete documentation index at: https://voltaire.tevm.sh/llms.txt
> Use this file to discover all available pages before exploring further.

# Storage

> Auto-generated API documentation

[**@tevm/voltaire**](../../index.mdx)

***

[@tevm/voltaire](../../index.mdx) / [evm](../index.mdx) / Storage

# Storage

## Functions

### sload()

> **sload**(`frame`, `host`): [`EvmError`](../index.mdx#evmerror) | `null`

Defined in: [src/evm/storage/handlers/0x54\_SLOAD.js:26](https://github.com/evmts/voltaire/blob/bd6ec34405c15ad8cd51d11579d495dc53813482/src/evm/storage/handlers/0x54_SLOAD.js#L26)

SLOAD (0x54) - Load word from storage

Stack:
in: key
out: value

Gas: 100 (warm) or 2100 (cold) - EIP-2929

EIP-2929 (Berlin+): Warm/cold storage access tracking

* First access to slot: 2100 gas (cold)
* Subsequent accesses: 100 gas (warm)
* Slot is marked warm for rest of transaction

#### Parameters

##### frame

[`BrandedFrame`](../index.mdx#brandedframe)

Frame instance

##### host

[`BrandedHost`](../index.mdx#brandedhost)

Host interface

#### Returns

[`EvmError`](../index.mdx#evmerror) | `null`

Error if any

***

### sstore()

> **sstore**(`frame`, `host`): [`EvmError`](../index.mdx#evmerror) | `null`

Defined in: [src/evm/storage/handlers/0x55\_SSTORE.js:44](https://github.com/evmts/voltaire/blob/bd6ec34405c15ad8cd51d11579d495dc53813482/src/evm/storage/handlers/0x55_SSTORE.js#L44)

SSTORE (0x55) - Save word to storage

Stack:
in: key, value
out: -

Gas: Complex - EIP-2200 (Istanbul+) / EIP-2929 (Berlin+) / EIP-3529 (London+)

EIP-2200 (Istanbul+):

* Sentry: Requires >= 2300 gas remaining
* Cost varies based on current vs original value
* Refunds for clearing and restoring values

EIP-2929 (Berlin+):

* Cold/warm storage slot tracking
* Cold slot access adds 2000 gas (100 -> 2100 for first access)

EIP-3529 (London+):

* Reduced refunds: 4800 instead of 15000 for clearing
* Max refund capped at 20% of tx gas

Pre-Istanbul:

* Zero to non-zero: 20000 gas
* Otherwise: 5000 gas
* Refund 15000 when clearing

#### Parameters

##### frame

[`BrandedFrame`](../index.mdx#brandedframe)

Frame instance

##### host

[`BrandedHost`](../index.mdx#brandedhost)

Host interface

#### Returns

[`EvmError`](../index.mdx#evmerror) | `null`

Error if any

***

### tload()

> **tload**(`frame`, `host`): [`EvmError`](../index.mdx#evmerror) | `null`

Defined in: [src/evm/storage/handlers/0x5c\_TLOAD.js:21](https://github.com/evmts/voltaire/blob/bd6ec34405c15ad8cd51d11579d495dc53813482/src/evm/storage/handlers/0x5c_TLOAD.js#L21)

TLOAD (0x5c) - Load word from transient storage

Stack:
in: key
out: value

Gas: 100

EIP-1153: Transient storage opcodes (Cancun hardfork)

* Transaction-scoped storage, cleared at end of transaction
* No refunds or complex gas metering

#### Parameters

##### frame

[`BrandedFrame`](../index.mdx#brandedframe)

Frame instance

##### host

[`BrandedHost`](../index.mdx#brandedhost)

Host interface

#### Returns

[`EvmError`](../index.mdx#evmerror) | `null`

Error if any

***

### tstore()

> **tstore**(`frame`, `host`): [`EvmError`](../index.mdx#evmerror) | `null`

Defined in: [src/evm/storage/handlers/0x5d\_TSTORE.js:22](https://github.com/evmts/voltaire/blob/bd6ec34405c15ad8cd51d11579d495dc53813482/src/evm/storage/handlers/0x5d_TSTORE.js#L22)

TSTORE (0x5d) - Save word to transient storage

Stack:
in: key, value
out: -

Gas: 100

EIP-1153: Transient storage opcodes (Cancun hardfork)

* Transaction-scoped storage, cleared at end of transaction
* No refunds or complex gas metering
* Cannot be called in static context

#### Parameters

##### frame

[`BrandedFrame`](../index.mdx#brandedframe)

Frame instance

##### host

[`BrandedHost`](../index.mdx#brandedhost)

Host interface

#### Returns

[`EvmError`](../index.mdx#evmerror) | `null`

Error if any